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=Phonology= The Latin transliteration of Ja uses an alphabet of 16 letters: A /ɑ/, /a/ K /k/ E /e/, /ɛ/ H /h/ I /i/, /ɪ/ J /j/ L /l/ M /m/ N /n/ O /ɔ/, /o/ P /p/ R /r/ S /s/ T /t/ U /u/, /ʊ/ V /v/. - Overall, the letters sound the way you would expect them to be (standard Latin pronunciation). All letters are generally pronounced the same way regardless of their placement. - As an exception from this rule, the letter "i" tends to form diphthongs /aɪ/, /eɪ/, /oɪ/ and /uɪ/ when it follows another vowel; other vowels are pronounced separately from each other. Ja words are stressed on the last root vowel. Most often, this turns out to be the penultimate syllable, or the last syllable if the word ends with a consonant. In a multi-syllable word, when the stress falls in an unusual place, it is sometimes denoted by an accent: á, é, í, ó, ú. (We will do this more often here than what is usually seen in Ja texts, where accents may be ommitted altogether.) In certain grammatical constructions the accent is also put on one-syllable words. =Phonotactics= Generally, Ja syllable structure can be described as ©v©. Out of all consonants, however, K, H, J and P cannot be syllable-final, while V and T can end a syllable but cannot be word-final. =Examples= =Basic Grammar= Ja has a very simple and regular grammar. Syntax Ja is a SVO language. Verbs are placed after the subject, adjectives follow the noun, and adverbs follow the verb. It is not uncommon, however, to place a word or phrase in front of the sentence for additional emphasis. E.g. one would say Kasunoté ju mia kaskhaohute (Today I am going to the store) instead of Ju mia kaskhaohute kasunoté (I am going to the store today). Ja adjectives are virtually indistinguishable from intransitive verbs. Ja makes an extensive use of supines and subordinate clauses. Noun A Ja noun has four cases, each marked with its distinctive ending. Ja nouns have no genders. ''Nominative'' A noun in Nominative has zero ending: su (water),'' junotó'' (toy), punsé (tree), kojemijas (airplane). Note that with words in Nominative, the stress is always on the last syllable. Nominative is used for the subjects of a sentence or a subordinate clause. Nominative is also used when two nouns are linked with the copula oa: Ku oa men ju síkao sorsunoté! -- You are the man I saw yesterday! ''Accusative'' A noun in the Accusative case receives the ending ''-u'': sú, junotou, punseu, kojemijasu. Note that if the word root already ends with ''-u'', u'' is not doubled but instead it receives the accent mark. Accusative denotes the direct object of a transitive verb, and follows the verb. In composite verbs (and the majority of verbs in Ja are composite) the ''signature of the verb is defined by its last (main) root: whatever object the root-verb takes will also be the object of the composite verb. For example, the verb mia (to move) may take an object -- the thing that is being moved. Therefore, the composite verb jaemia (to think, lit. "to move in one's head") also takes a direct object, and, unlike in English, the phrase Ju jaemia kú (I am thinking of you) needs no prepositions. On the other hand, the verb sattia (to learn, lit: "to come to know") has the root tia (to come, to become) which in this form is intransitive (the transitive form of tia means "to bring"). Therefore, sattia cannot have direct objects either, and in Ju sattia sati Jau (I am learning Ja) an adverbial is required before Jau. (Lit. "I learn to know Ja".) ''Genitive'' Nouns in Genitive have the ending ''-o''. As with other endings, if the root ends with an o'', it is not doubled but receives the accent mark. Nouns in Genitive describe other nouns and follow them. They usually are placed after adjectives describing the same noun. Genitive in Ja carries a wide range of semantic meanings, from posession to having a quality to being related to the main word in some way or another. Overall the range of cases when Genitive is used in Ja is similar to those where you use posessive or the preposition "of" in English. Ja nouns in Genitive can also serve as a Verb of a sentence, replacing the use of a copula. Genitive in this role expresses belonging to a group, e.g.: ''Ju meno! (I am a man!), Ka punseo jea (This is a tall tree) etc. ''Locative / Instrumental'' Locative / Instrumental nouns receive the ending ''-e''. When used as Locative, it indicates place or time: sue (in water), punseolane (in a forest), kojemijase (on an airplane), sorsunoté (yesterday), vorté (soon; lit. "in a short time"). Sometimes locative also denotes possession, but such usage is rare: e.g. compare Ku athata ju ati taorulanu ká (Give me this book) vs. Ku tita jute taorulanu ká (Bring this book to me, i.e. to my place). If the location needs to be specified more precisely, e.g. "on the desk" vs. "under the desk", or "near the house" vs. "in the house", Ja uses a position indicator + Genitive to express that: jé taoruo (on the desk, lit. "on top of the desk"), jere taoruo (under the desk), nere huo (outside the house), nertenve huo (around the house), né huo (in / inside the house), hue (at the house). As you can see, all these constructions follow the pattern "at" (expressed as Locative) "position" (e.g. top, under, outside etc.) "of" (expressed as Genitive) original word. The position indicators are grammatically nouns, although they are usually translated into English as prepositions. To form a sentence indicating an object / person location, e.g. "The boy is in the house", Ja speakers would use the verb ná (vi: "be located", vt: "put"): Nunmen ná né huo. One can also say Nunmen nea hue, using the root ne as a verb with meaning "be inside". When used as Instrumental, the same form indicates a tool or object with which an action is done. This usage usually translates into English with the help of preposition "with", although not always: Nunmen ká lojana vovuovu-lojanaolae (This boy plays a violin). In Ja, it is interchangeable with a phrase that includes the word lai (using): Jamen tala saraotutirhonu seorure (The master beats the dog with a stick) can be said as Jamen tala saraotutirhonu lai seoruru (The master beats the dog using a stick). Although Locative and Instrumental share the same ending, it is usually quite obvious whether the place, time, or tool is meant in each given case. Nouns in Locative / Instrumental folow the verb and play the role of indirect objects or adverbial modifiers. Infixes ''-t-'', ''-k- '' and ''-v-'' Three infixes, ''-t-,'' ''-k- and ''-v-'', can be used in different parts of speech and with different noun cases. The general semantic meaning of them is as follows: In particular, when used with Locative, ''-t-'', ''-k-'' and ''-v-'' have the meaning of "to", "from" and "through", respectively. E.g. ''Ju mia hu't'e'' (I go home) vs. ''Ju mia hu'k'e'' (I am leaving home) vs. ''Ju mia nomis'v'e'' (I am walking on a path); ''Karmel neka taoruru je't'e taolono (She put the pencil on the desk) vs. Karmel haka taoruru je'k'e taolono (She took the pencil from the desk), etc. ''-k-'' and ''-t-'' can also be used with Genitive (e.g. huomen juo "my husband" vs. huomen ju'k'o'' "my ex-husband") but such usage is much more rare. When used in verbs, ''-t-'', '' -k-'' and ''-v-'' form prospective, perfective and progressive aspects. Used in adverbials, ''-t-'' and ''-k-'' produce adverbs of purpose and adverbs of cause, etc. We will give examples of these in each respective section below. Verb Verbs in Ja receive the ending ''-a. As with other endings, if the root ends with the same vowel, it is not duplicated but receives the accent instead. Verbs do not conjugate. A large percentage of Ja verbs are ergative and change their meaning depending on whether they are used as transitive or intransitive verbs. For example: mia (goes and moves /something/), tia (comes and brings /something/), kela (errs and breaks /something/) etc. There are no verb tenses in Ja, but there are aspects. Unmodified verbs are assumed to be in imperfective aspect. The infixes ''-t-'' and ''-k-'' put them into prospective and perfective aspects, signifying the action that is about to start or has been completed. Quite often aspects are translated into other languages using future and past tenses: Ju si'k'a tou siaotenovue juo! (I have seen it with my own two eyes!) or Ku kas't'a paki katou! (You will pay for this!). On the other hand, a narrative like Palsunoté moa korujamen pala... (Once upon a time there lived a king...) usually does not require an aspect change. The infix ''-v-'' produces the progressive aspect: compare Ju mava sunoteoporomau katé (I am eating lunch now) and Ju má honokanu sunoté pana (I eat meat every day). Infix ''-i-'' The infix ''-i-'' is used with verbs and denotes imaginary actions. When put in the perfective aspect, it it used to mark actions that could happen, but never did (subjunctive). On the other hand, when it is used with verbs in the prospective aspect, it shows that the action may happen, оr may not, depending on the circumstances (conditional). For example: Ju tik'i'a ku tithiki jú! (I would come if you called me!) or Ju pat'i'a katou aki teu (I will do it if I have time). Compare this with: Ju tika ku tithiki jú! (I came because you called me) and Ju pata katou aki teu (I will do it for I have the time). Intransitive Verbs as Adjectives Ja adjectives, form the grammatical point of view, do not differ from intransitive verbs. In a way, all Ja adjectives are participles. They end with ''-a'' and go after the noun. Adjectives often play the role of a verb in a sentence, requiring no copula. For example, losia (beautiful) can be used in Ku nunmelo losia (You are a beautiful girl) as well as Nunmel ká losia roi (This girl is very beautiful). Just like verbs, adjectives can have aspects: Mijas losika jila e nerekélao katé (The car, once beautiful, was now dirty and scratched). Another way of looking at adjectives is to see them as one-word subordinate clauses. The word losia is composed of two words, loi "good" and sia "look" and literally means "good-looking". One can look at it as the verb that means "to look good". The phrase nunmel losia can be equally well translated as "a beautiful girl", "a good-looking girl" and "a girl that 'looks good". Adverb and Adverbial Caluses Ja adverbs end with ''-i: roi (strongly, from roa strong), loi (well, from loa good) etc. Adverbs are often used with infixes ''-t-'' for adverbs of goal or purpose, and ''-k-'' for cause or condition. With their dependent words, such adverbs form adverbial clauses that are ubiquitous in Ja. Some of the most frequent uses of such adverbial clauses include: - with modal verbs, like ria (want, need), kia (can) etc.: Ku kia hiti Jae? (Can you speak Ja?); Ju ria nertenepelti kú (I want to hug you). - with verbs like tia (come, become), lia (let, allow) and similar: Ju sattia hiti Jae (I learn to speak Ja). - when you state intent or purpose: Ju tika siti menmeu juo (I came to see my father). - when you state reason or cause: Karmen skaenea lorranuaki (He is not here because he is sick). Please note that the adverbal phrase can be quite developed, incuding a subject, object etc., e.g. Ju ria ku pati katou vorté (I want you to do this immediately) is formed by taking Ku pá katou vorté (You do this immediately) and turning it into a adverbial phrase by changing the ending ''-a'' into ''-ti'': pá (do) -> pati (to do). Adverbs and Prepositions There are no prepositions in Ja, and the case system is not that extensive. Where the noun cases are not enough to express the relationship between the verb and the indirect object, adverbs are commonly used as links between the two. The range of adverbs and adverbial phrases used for this purpose is extensive: ''Pantú ria sattiti '''sati Jau'' (Everyone should learn Ja; lit: Everyone should learn to know Ja) Hikista jú hí Johnu (My name is John; lit: Call me saying John) In many cases when is an indirect object in English becomes the subject of a subordinate clause in Ja: Ju pikpathia ku atharti ju ati taoruolanu ká! (Please give me this book! lit: I ask that you give me to have this book). As you can see, the first part of the verb is often used as an adverb later in the sentence. This is the general practice; e.g. if hara simply means "give (away), let go", the verb athara, made up from ati (to have) + hara (give) means "give to someone". The first part, ati (to have) can be repeated as a part of an adverbial phrase: Ju athara ku ati katou (I give this to you). Supine and Subordinate Clauses A Ja verb can be put into noun cases, forming a supine. To do that you keep the verb ending ''-a'' and add the case ending after it. For example, má (eat) -- huovon mao (eating room, dining room); jaurá (rest, sleep) -- te jaurao (time of sleep, resting time). A supine is linked by its case ending to the main word it describes, but at the same time it can retain all words that were linked to it as a verb, forming a subordinate clause. Here are some examples: Ju sá ku ríkau tonthiti ju tonti paltou -- I know you wanted to tell me something (compare with: Ku rika tonthiti ju tonti paltou "You wanted to tell me something" and Ju tonta paltou "I will hear something"). John má té ventú tuo tíao hute -- John was eating when his friend entered the house (compare with Ventú tuo tia hute "His friend enters the house"). The case in which the supine is placed determines the relationship between the main word and the subordinate clause: - when the supine is in Accusative, it decribes a verb and can be translated using the English conjunction "that": Melme sia neke siaopuo ju sorttíau. ("Mother saw that I was coming back from the window" or "Mother saw me coming back from the window"); Ju saka tu sorttítau! menme hia. ("I knew he would come back, said father"). - when the supine is in Genitive, it describes a noun. This noun is "raised" from being an object in the subordinate clause; that is, it is assumed to play the role of an object there. This can either be a direct object in Accusative (tu panesao "a well-known person"; to ju essíkao sorté "something I've never seen before"), or an indirect object in Locative / Instrumental (te mao "time of eating, dinner time"; mis noemíao "a traveled path", siaotenovú ju sikao lorpaonu ká skia siti jori "the pair of eyes with which I have seen these horrors can not see any more" etc.) - when the supine is in Locative / Instrumental, it describes a verb and can be translated using such English conjunctions as "while" or "by" (Melme sia ju sorttíau síae neke siaopuo "Mother saw me coming while (she was) looking out of the window.") Finally, supine can be used in Nominative, naming the action or quality, e.g. Romia lopia ("Running is fun") or Losia mortlirta pankor morti ("Beauty will save the world"). Note that if Genitive plays the role of a verb, it can also form supine: Té ju nunménoo jora ju lua konmau -- When I was a little boy I liked candy (Ju nunmeno jora "I am a little boy", Ju lua konmau "I like candy"). Please refer to the "Advanced Examples" for more examples of supine, which is very widely used in Ja. Morphology Transitions Between Parts of Speech Composite Words Negation Plural and Numbers Translating Pronouns =Advanced Examples= =Dictionary= Category:Languages